Prehistoric workshop and exploitation site Szentgál-
Tűzköveshegyhill(Veszprémcounty,Central
Transdanubia)
(published in ActaArchHung. 43, 1991 pp. 337-375)
Katalin T. BIRO - Judit REGENYE
1. Introduction
During the last few years, considerable progress was
achieved in the field of prehistoric raw material
investigations in Hungary. In respect of chipped stone
artifacts, the Ist International Conference on Flint
Mining and Lithic Raw Material Identification in the
Carpathian Basin held at Sümeg, 1986 contributed
essentially to both scientific aspects as well as the
foundation of a comparative collection offerring direct
reference samples for practical work (BIRO ed. 1986-
1987, BIRO-DOBOSI 1987). On the basis of these
antecedents, we try to make an other small step towards
a prehistoric interpretation of lithic raw material
distribution system describing one of the most
characteristic raw material type groups of Hungary, the
Middle Jurassic radiolarites of the Transdanubian Mid-
Mountains. This study is based on our excavations at
the most important exploitation point of this material,
Szentgál-Tüzköveshegy, excavations and fieldwork on
prehistoric sites connected more or less with
radiolarite exploitation as well as related studies
concerning characterization, exploitation and access to
this important raw material throughout prehistory. 1 In
course of a systematical survey of raw material source
regions of Hungary conducted parallel to the
investigation of archaeological lithic assemblages, our
attention was quickly focused on the dominant raw
material types of Transdanubia, i.e., Middle Jurassic
radiolarites, especially its most popular variety with
characteristic vivid red colour named, after its most
significant outcrop, 'Szentgál type red radiolarite'.
This material was found in extremely great quantities
in the form of worked blocks, flakes and chips,
together with quartzite hammerstones on the surface of
the geological outcrop. On the basis of field surveys,
excavations on and around the outcrop as well as
experiences on archaeological assemblages we can
suppose that the Flintstone Hill of Szentgál, lying at
an easily accessible point by important routes used
even today functioned as one of the most important
'industrial centres' of the Neolithic (in the first
place, Late Neolithic) of Hungary.
2. Radiolarites of the Transdanubian Mid-Mountains
Radiolarite, comprising the bulk of lithic raw
materials used for chipped stone implements in
Transdanubia, is a sedimentary rock formed of the
skeletal elements of Radiolarians. According to
chemical composition, it contains over 95 % of SiO2,
present in the form of microcrystalline quartz and
chalcedony. As most of the important raw materials, it
was described by geological -and petroarchaeological -
studies under different names; flint, chert, jasper,
'half-opal' etc (KORMOS 1912, GAAL 1938, VÉRTES 1965
etc.). In many countries it is still referred to under
these names; e.g., hand specimens from Italy and Greece
were sent to our comparative collection under the name
'jasper' and geological 2 maps of Romania mention the
same rock also as jasper. The name 'radiolarite',
however, reflects the genetics of the rock better - by
the way, Czechoslovakian, Polish and Austrian technical
literature uses this term as well. Radiolarites were
formed in the deeper regions of the Tethys, the
equatorial ocean of the Jurassic age, distributed over
a vast area from Italy till the Himalayas. Their
formation is documented in Transdanubia from the Middle
Jurassic till the beginning of the Cretaceous period,
resulting in a fairly homogeneous lithostratigraphical
and micropalaeontological unit comprising local groups
more or less separable on basis of its environment,
conditions of occurrence and macroscopical qualities.
For a petroarchaeological investigation in the
Carpathian Basin, the following pieces of information
seem useful about the radiolarites of the Transdanubian
Mid-Mountains: -they are generally relatively older
compared to other radiolarites of the Tethyian
sequence, being predominantly of Middle Jurassic (Bath-
Callovian, maximum Oxfordian) age -their formation was
connected to the parts belonging to the African plate
within the Tethys, and so far, oceanic sea floor
basement and presence of an ofiolit series, otherwise
characteristic of radiolarites, could not be attested
in connection with them. -between the two large
radiolarite regions of the Transdanubian Mid-Mountains
(Bakony and Pilis- Gerecse, respectively), the main
difference lies in the character of the mother rock.
Radiolarites of the Bakony Mts. are typically found
amidst light, porose, sometimes silicified layers of
porcelanite while the Gerecse 3 radiolarites are
stratified between hard, compact banks of limestone
(KONDA 1986). Information on other sources of
radiolarite in the Carpathian Basin are of fairly
variable accuracy. Probably, the radiolarite occurrence
of Vienna-Mauer (RUTTKAY 1980) is similar to that of
the Bakony, as much as we can judge on the basis of the
scanty reference material at our disposal. As opposed
to this, radiolarites known under the name of
"Carpathian radiolarites" from Slovakia and those of
the Mecsek Mountains and are fairly well known and can
be separated in most cases macroscopically from the
radiolarites of the Transdanubian Mid-Mountains. They
aretypicallyyounger(UpperJurassic-Lower
Cretaceous). Radiolarites of similar age are known,
under the name "jasper" from Romania; together with the
material from the Mecsek, they are associated with deep
sea basic volcanism. Unfortunately our comparative
collection has no reference samples from this material
as yet, similar to those of Serbia known to us from
references only (KACZANOSKA-KOZLOWSKI 1986). A special
case within the Bakony material is the Lower Cretaceous
silex of Sümeg and Hárskút containing a rich
microfossil assemblage with essential amount of
Radiolarians as well. This rock can be fairly well
separated from Jurassic radiolarites. On the basis of
similar origin and mechanical properties, this raw
material type was investigated together with the
jurassic radiolarites of the Transdanubian Mid-
Mountains. Recently, presence of Jurassic radiolarites
was also spotted from the Bükk Mountains (PELIKAN 1986,
DOSZTALY 1986) which can be separated on the basis of
an uneven, flaky fracture, dull lustre, dominantly dark
colour from the rest. 4 Characterization of
Transdanubian radiolarites and its macroscopically
distinguishable types Radiolarites can be fairly well
distinguished from other silices on the basis of
colour, lustre, texture and the fossils which can be
observed already in relatively small enlargement.
Within them there are also certain macroscopically
separable types, more or less corresponding or at least
indicating source regions. Radiolarites of the
Transdanubian Mid-Mountains seem to form a relatively
independent group. The types are named after the most
characteristic sources with considerable amount of
transitional varieties. Certain colour varieties can
occur at several sources, but the types separated are
seemingly more typical for the eponyme sources. These
types were seemingly preferentially used by prehistoric
people as indicated on Figs. 8-9. The most
characteristic varietyamong the Transdanubian
radiolarites is, without doubts, the vivid red
radiolarite typical for Szentgál-Flintstone hill. It is
also known to occur at several radiolarite sources, but
it is predominant at this source. "Szentgál red flint",
in fact, attracted the attention of prehistorians
seemingly early. Among the pioneering students of
prehistoric archaeology in Hungary, Vilmos LIPP already
found it worth to separate under this name in
connnection of the prehistoric finds of Vas county
(THALLOCZY 1876). Apart from this type, we suggest to
separate yellow-mustard yellow radiolarites coloured by
manganese minerals (Urkut-Eplény type), homogeneous
brown radiolarite typical for the Hárskút sources, all
of them characteristic of the Bakony radiolarites
mainly. Grey, less vivid reddish grey radiolarites
occur frequently among the 5 Gerecse radiolarites,
these latter sometimes interacting with the mauve,
silky grey, greenish-bluish grey radiolarites of the
Mecsek and the Slovak Carpathes. Chemical analyses of
the radiolarites performed so far seemingly do not
support separation of the sources within radiolarites
essentially (BIRO-PALOSI 1986, VARGA in press, NEWTON
1989). The differences can be more significant from top
to bottom of the same section than between sites lying
relatively far from each other. Micropalaeontological
studies which resulted in essential progress in field
of biozonation and stratigraphy of these rocks are also
denoting more identity than differences within
radiolarites of different localities. Therefore we are
convinced, maintaining the possibility of a more
complex and more objective analysis in the future, that
our basically macroscopic approach must be of higher
informative value now than random and very scarce
instrumental analyses.
3. Archaeological investigation of the radiolarite
outcrops of the Transdanubian Mid-Mountains
Archaeological investigation of the radiolarite
outcrops started relatively late. As opposed to the
more intensively surveyed sources of obsidian and
limnic quartzite exploitation sites, the archaeological
significance ofthe radiolarite outcrops was
discovered, mainly due to geological exploring
trenches, in the sixties (VÉRTES 1964, FULÖP 1973).
Investigation of exploitation sites, presentation of
existing "flint-mines" is still realized under the
auspices of the Hungarian Geological Survey. The field
surveys around the radiolarite outcrops resulted in the
discovery 6 of further exploitation points and lithic
workshops (BACSKAY 1984, BIRO 1986b). During the same
series of systematical field survey, the special
importance of the Szentgál-Flintstone hill outcrop
became obvious. Certain references from the last
century indicate that the source and the characteristic
'red flint' was known to students of prehistory (LIPP
1876). At the beginning of our century, flint
implements were collected from the prehistoric
settlements of Szentgál environs as well as the
Flintstone Hill itself (*** 1912, 1929). In the late
forties, during intensive field survey of the Vázsony
basin some more stone imlements were collected here by
Gy. Mészáros, who also mentioned the existence of the
source (MÉSZAROS 1948). Chipped stone artefacts were
collected by field surveys devoted to the first volumes
of the archaeological topography of Hungary as well as
private collectors who offered us essenial help. Recent
work on and around the Szentgál field sources started
in 1982 in frames of the above mentioned field survey.
The Szentgál outcrop was visited together with E.
Bácskay and J. Konda. On the territory previously
mapped as 'Middle Jurassic radiolarite debris'
(geological survey of J. Mészáros, 195.), we could
identify artificial (antropogeneous) fractures, flakes,
cores and primitive tool forms accompanied by non-local
quartzite cobbles heavily worn as hammerstones. Further
field surveys together with other geologist colleagues
(J. Mészáros, Gy. Don, D. Bihari) corroborated our
first impressions. Radiolarite can be found in primary
position today in artificial outcrops (railway road
cut) only, while rocks of the underlying and covering
beds are found on the surface in primary position. The
large amount of radiolarite 7 debris can be attributed,
directly and indirectly, to human interference.
Excavations on the Flintstone Hill were conducted
between 1983- 1985, in the hope of discovering traces
of exploitation (pits, shafts) and finds which can help
us date the obvious traces of stone chipping activity
(BIRO 1986a). In our trenches and sections opened on a
very small surface only (cca. 50 square meters) we
found an incredibly high amount of worked silex and
debris. On a cautios estimation, the excavation surface
affected less than 0.1 o/oo. of the workshop surface
here, and we can count on the existence of at least
four shuch primaly workshop spots on the basis of our
surveys and mapping data. According to present, very
preliminary counts, the 2 * 6 m section where we
conducted complete collecting there were about 3 tons
of radiolarite and porcelanite material collected, out
of them, about 5 % clearly indicating traces of
working. On a very small sample of such worked
material, we performed investigations similar to those
devoted to settlement materials (Fig.8) Traces of the
mother rock were not found yet in the central region at
the depth of 2.40 cm. At the border of the area densely
covered with radiolarite debris, probably a former dead
trench we found an independent chipping site containing
less atypical forms reflecting a more evolved stage in
the processing of raw material. Chipping places
yielding similar material were found at the flanks of
the Flintstone Hill at several places. These places
were described as secondary workshops (BIRO 1986b).
Expedient tool forms of the primary and secondary
workshops recalled tool forms of the late neolithic;
however, no directly dateable material was found. In
the above mentioned dead trench 8 (section V) charred
wood remains collected from the depth of -60 cm were
analysed by C-14 method. The result (685 + 120 B.P.,
Hv- 13189) is highly unlikely in context of the
exploitation and the workshop surface. The excavation
was completed by further field surveys and collectings
at the vicinty of the source. The lack of datable finds
on the primary workshop site, together with the
oppressive amount of absolutely atypical material
incited us to concentrate on evidences dating
exploitation through workshop settlements around the
source. Thus we performed excavations at one of these
settlements, Szentgál-Füzikút between 1986-1988, a new
survey of prehistoric sites around the source region, a
revision of topographical and settlement historical
data in the wider environment of the source with
special regard to its possible connection to the
Szentgál sources and workshop. The result obtained was
collated to raw material distribution data at our
disposal from Transdanubia and wider regions.
4. Distribution of radiolarite on archaeological sites
Distribution of Transdanubian radiolarite types was
studied, in connection with the Szentgál exploitation
site, apart from the primary and secondary workshop
sites on the whole territory of Veszprém county, based
on the results of the Archaeological topography of
Hungary (MRTI-IV) and recent archaeological
investigations. Our choice can be supported by, apart
from the existence of administrative borders of the
county, arguments of geographical character; Szentgál
and its environs occupy a central position within the
county, and the borders of the county fortunately
interact with the distance that can be conveniently 9
covered in a day (20-30 km). From the cca. 4600 square
kms of the present Veszprém county we tried to collect
all datable evidence of chipped stone use since the
Palaeolithic. Data obtained this way was completed by
evidences of other sites from Hungary and some other
localities lying outside the territory of the country,
in the hope of a historical interpretation of the
utilization ofthe Szentgál radiolarite. The
prehistoric sites of Veszprém county are presented here
on 7 maps (Figs. 1-7) since the Palaeolithic till
Middle Bronze Age. We can suppose, that exploitation -
or, at least, use - of the Szentgál sources started
already during the Palaeolithic, as it is already
present in the material of Paleolithic sites. The
scarcity and uncertainty of the Palaeolithic sites in
the county, however, does not allow any conclusions
concerning settlement patterns. The extreme point is
rather arbitrarily chosen here, because chipped stone
tools (among them, radiolarites) were in use for a
longer time. Our decision can be supported by present
state of research as well as professional arguments; on
one hand, after the Middle Bronze Age, the use of stone
artefacts is dramatically declining, due to wide
distribution of metal implements. On the other hand, in
county Veszprém the investigation of Late Bronze Age
focussed on tumuli rather than settlements, which are
less perspective for our study. Periodization on the
maps and diagrams (figs. 1-7, 8-9 respectively) aimed
at the most accurate determination of the assemblages
possible. The material collected from field surveys
mainly does not allow a finer determination of the age.
Here we 10 must mention that sites that were not
possible to date with the above accuracy were rejected
here. Due to systematical field surveys in Veszprém
county in the sixties, the settlement pattern reflected
on these maps can be considered authentic. It is
further corroborated by the fact that during our field
surveys in the environs of Szentgál conducted between
1985-89, no essential modification seemed necessary. As
opposed tothis fortunate situation in the
investigation of settlement history due to intensive
field surveys, an essential drawback is the lack of
systematical excavations opening large surfaces here
from the prehistoric period, making impossible the
investigation of important problems like an exact
determination of raw material and type spectra, ratio
of technological types, relative frequency of tool
types. Many of the assemblages are obviously results of
selective collectings - not to speak of grave
chronological problems in the assignment of lithics on
multi-period sites. For an analysis of settlement
patterns and relation to source region we used a
simplified geomorphological map (after PÉCSI ed. 1972),
where the formation containing potential radiolarite
sources (after FULHAAP ed. 1984) are marked for all
periods. The sites are successively numbered, presence
of lithics and relative amount of chipped stone tools
indicated in accordance with the comprehensive diagram
(Fig. 8), where the sites containing stone tools are
demonstrated in a rough relative chronological order.
Chipped stone tools associated with dateable pottery
finds are most abundant from the Neolithic. Their
number is considerably decreasing towards the Bronze
Age, marking not only the break- through of metal
objects, much rather, state of research. We must 11
note here that the multi-period sites dated by surface
collected pottery are presented on all relevant maps,
and sites yielding stone artefacts are marked as such
on the diagrams and corresponding maps. This may give a
misleading impression, still we are convinced that on
multi-period surface collected sites we have the basis
to attribute lithics to a certain phase in very limited
cases only. Data of the distribution maps were
primarily aimed at investigating the relations of
settlement patterns to natural environment, in the
first place, raw material sources. We are convinced
that any significant changes in the settlement
structure reflect historical, more exactly, economic
historical changes. In the comprehensive diagram (Fig.
8) we are demonstrating the total number of the
assemblage (in brackets), the known periods of the site
on a simplified relative chronological scale, and in
the bars, the ratio of Transdanubian radiolarites
within the chipped stone tools, the colour ("type")
spectra of radiolarites and the technological /
typological distribution of the assemblage, these two
latter bars concerning the radiolarites only. The size
of the bars correspond to the size of the assemblage,
same as on the distribution maps. The above data
reflect with high sensitivity the role of radiolarites
in the assemblage, both from the quantitative and the
qualitative aspect. Unfortunately, selected collectings
and the lack of large surface excavations essentially
decrease the value of our data in many cases. Already
by the 60-ies, TORMA (1969) could observe that in
prehistoric times the densely populated areas of the
county were mainly along the river Marcal and the
Balaton Highland (with 12 the exception of the Tapolca
Basin, covered in those days by marshes). Both of these
regions are rich in waters, in case of the latter, in
springs as well. Climate is very favourable here as
well, up to our days. In case of the Marcal, the main
attraction was probably the wide and fertile flood
plain. In case of all horizons separated, we paid
special attention to relation and distance to raw
material sources, in the first place, the Szentgál
outcrops. Lithics from the sites are characterized here
in very broad lines only, as much as it is necessary
for our main point.
4.1.Prehistoric sites of Veszprém county and the
Transdanubian radiolarites
4.1.1. Palaeolithic period
Palaeolithic sites on the territory of Veszprém county
are seemingly (though unexpectedly) very rare. Almost
all of the sites mentioned in connection with this
period are uncertain, doubtful and difficult to
interprete in our study. The only site which is
undoubtedly of Palaeolithic age on the present
territory of the county is the Lovas paint mine , but
the exact age determination of the site is also
questioned (MÉSZAROS-VÉRTES 1955, DOBOSI-VÖRÖS 1979,
GABORI 1984). The "index find", a bifacial scraper is
made of, according to VÉRTES, grey hornstone, is
exposed on the permanent exhibition of the Hungarian
National Museum. The accessory material, found in
authentic culture layer (pit 2 containing the fossil
bone mining implements) consist entirely of Szentgál
radiolarite and closely related variants (MÉSZAROS-
VÉRTES 1955, Plate XII). 13 In respect of the present
paper, probably the most important Palaeolithic
assemblage of the region is the heavily debated
assemblage of the cave Pörgölhegy at Bakonybél. The
site was opened by M. Roska between 1950-53 (ROSKA
1954). The interpretation of a 'horse statuette'
discarded by Vértes unfortunately had a lasting effect
on that of the whole material, thus more recent reviews
mention it, at the very best case, among uncertain
finds (VÉRTES 1965, DOBOSI 1975). The bulk of the
material was inventorized in the HNM as fakes and
pseudo- implements (Pb 62/112), but even in the old
material of the HNM we can find radiolarite artifacts,
undoubtedly worked, from the Palaeolithic layers of the
site (Pb 62/115-119, /140). More recently, E. Bácskay
transferred some worked material from the collection of
the Hungarian Geological Survey to the HNM. All
significant variants of the Bakony radiolarites can be
found in the assembalge. Though we do not aim at the
revision of the complete material here we must note
that the assemblage reminds us to that of a secondary
workshop, dated by, according to the original
publication (VARROK 1955), a typical W1 fauna. From the
vicinity of Városlöd, a find assemblage described as
Palaeolithic was excavated by Gy. Rhé, associated with
a mammoth tusk, from a sand quarry (MRT II.) The old
material kept in the collection of the Veszprém Bakony
Museum under inventory nr. VBM 55.887.1, 55.895 cannot
be unambiguously identified with this. Typologically
the material is very poor, proving only the fact of
radiolariteprocessinghere.Withoutproper
stratigraphical evidence these old collectings cannot
be associated with Palaeolithic inhabitants. 14 From
the site Tihany-Gödrösök, V. DOBOSI collected stone
aretifacts, presumably of palaeolithic age (RF Ser./1,
34/1981, p.21-22). The so far unpublished material is
deposited in the Hungarian National Museum, its raw
material is predominantly Szentgál radiolarite and
local geisirite. Further strayfinds of the Bakony Mts.
described as palaeolithic (Gyulafirátót, Nagyvázsony;
MÉSZAROS 1948) are even more obscure. The only
authentic and chronologically reliable site of former
Veszprém county is Ságvár (LACZKO et al. 1930, GABORI
1964, Cs.BALOG 1985). A very small part of the
material, uncertainly associated with the palaeolithic
assemblage is deposited in the VBM, while most of it is
in the HNM. For an analysis of the raw material
composition, I had the chance to survey a small part of
the waste flakes in connection with the study of É. Cs.
BALOG. The examination of some 700 pieces was enough to
observe that 1, Ságvár was undoubtedly in contact with
the Bakony sources of radiolarite; 2, it belonged to
the sites supplied basically from several source
regions, namely to Bakony/Mecsek supply zone with
fairly large amount of long distance import material as
well. Transdanubian radiolarites are present in the
material, up to 20-30 percent of the assemblage,
similar to those of the Mecsek materials. This is not
surprising, considering the geographical position of
the site; however, it can even more emphasize the
misterious poverty of the Bakony and, even more, Mecsek
Palaeolithic. Palaeolithic activity was indicated on
the Flintstone Hill of Szentgál by no typological
arguments as yet. From one of the excavation trenches
(Section 3.), under the Holocene layers under sterile
layer of barren debris, dated on pedological grounds to
15 W3 by P. CSORBA, atypical implements made of local
radiolarite were found (Biró 1986a). Similarly of W3
layers, D. BIHARI found flint artefacts in a sand
quarry in the immediate vicinity of the other important
raw material source of the Bakony Mts., the Tevel flint
(BIHARI in press).
4.1.2. Mesolithic period
One of the basic questions of prehistoric research in
Veszprém county, especially the Southern Bakony and the
Balaton Highlands is the Mesolithic problem. Since the
monography of MÉSZAROS (1948) where, on the basis of
typological arguments and a striking abundance of
lithics collected predominantly on the surface, the
author supposed the existence of a rich Mesolithicum,
archaeological research treated the subject with a
cautious rejection (VÉRTES 1965, MRT I-IV). The
complete revision of the prehistoric material of the
Veszprém Bakony Museum seem to support this critical
approach. Most of the rich and important lithic
material collected by MÉSZAROS interact on typological
grounds with those dated by pottery as Neolithic (in
the first place, LBC and Lengyel), while some special
bifacial tools seem definitely more recent. Within the
several thousand lithics collected, there are some
archaic forms as well; these are rather of Palaeolithic
character, covered fairly often by patina which is
different from the general state of preservation
observed. A small part of the Mészáros collection
remind us, typologically, Epipaleolithic forms as well,
that would coincide with the existence of rich and very
early LBC on the Balaton Highlands, unusually rich in
stone tools within Hungary. 16 We have to conclude that
so far no authentic Mesolithic assemblages can be found
in Veszprém county; the assemblages formerly attributed
to this period are, in most cases, presumably
Neolithic. The basic raw material of these is Szentgál
radiolarite and other raw material varieties of the
Bakony Mts.
4.1.3. Neolithic period
Linearband Pottery Culture (LBC)
There are 94 localities marked on the map, most of them
surface collectings. There are 14 major settlements
among them. The sites are clustered seemingly in two
settlement blocks, namely, by the Marcal and the
Balaton-Highlands. Within the former block, four groups
can be separated, in the latter, five. Further on,
there are some scattered sites on the northern part of
the county. The formation of these small groups seem
reasonable in the Balaton- Highland where the
articulation of the surface geographically motivate
such a pattern - small basins within the mountain
attract settlement groups. In case of the Marcal
valley, however, there are no natural factors forcing
this settlement pattern. This observation is in
accordance with that of E. LENNEIS, suggesting that the
distribution area of the LBC comprised small groups of
settlements with uninhabited areas lying in between.
The LBC of Veszprém county offered an essential amount
of lithics for our study. At the same time, this
material comprises the bulk of the Holocene lithics
published so far (MÉSZAROS 1948, BACSKAY 1976, BIRO
1987, REGENYE-GLASER-BIRO in press). It should be
noted, however, that most of these materials come also
from surface collectings. The field surveys of Mészáros
in the 17 forties, conducted mainly in the Vázsony
Basin resulted in large lithic assemblages, especially
from Vöröstó and Mencshely. According to our revision
and new excavations (REGENYE RF ),the bulk of this
material can be associated with LBC. Considerable
amount of stone tools were obtained due to the activity
of Dezsö LACZKO and Gyula RHÉ from the beginning of the
century, as well as topographical surveys. The lack of
authentic evidences of local mesolithic here prevent us
from outlining the beginning of the Mesolithic in
Veszprém county. This is all the more unfortunate
because this region might have had a key role in the
formation of LBC in general. Accodrding to KALICZ
(1978-79, 1989), one of the possible scenes for this
process is the area lying to the north from Lake
Balaton. The list of the Earliest LBC sites
(Balatonszepezd (11),Révfülöp (64), Veszprém-
Nándortelep (83) can be complemented by some minor ones
possibly belonging to this horizon: Veszprém- Kórház
(82), Felsöörs (23), Kádárta (34), Hidegkút (31). There
are no lithic assemblages which can be attributed to,
unambiguously and exclusively, this earliest phase of
the LBC. The most important lithic material of the
period is undoubtedly that of Veszprém-Nándortelep,
including, however, material of the classical LBC as
well. This assemblage contains over 90 % of Bakony
radiolarites. It is interesting to note that the
dominant type is the Hárskút brown variety, the source
of which is relatvely nearer to Veszprém. Following the
earliest phase of LBC we find the material of all the
phases and groups recently described for Transdanubian
LBC (KALICZ 1989), namely the Keszthely group, the
music-note style pottery and the Zeliezovce group. From
the area of the Marcal 18 valley we have only
strayfinds, excavations were performed only at Kúp (37)
by S. MITHAY. At the Balaton Highland, more material
was accumulated mainly due to Gy. Mészáros, while new
rescue excavations were conducted at Mencshely (49) and
at the locality Kórház street, Veszprém. According to
our recent knowledge, most of the sites can be assigned
to the Keszthely group, at the same time the 3 Music-
note style pottery group settlements and the 12
Zeliezovce group settlements determined on the basis of
pottery cannot be regionally separated from the
Keszthely group. In course of the excavations of the
Nemesvámos-Balácapuszta roman villa, material belonging
to the late period of the Zeliezovce culture was also
found. The publication of lithics from this period, as
it was previously mentioned, is in a fairly good state;
BACSKAY 1976 published the material of Zalavár,
Keszthely and Szentgyörgyvölgy, formerly belonging to
the territory of Veszprém county, MÉSZAROS 1948
published a good selection of his collectings, and the
most important materials assigned to this period
according to the inventories of the Veszprém and Pápa
Museums were surveyed, from a typological and raw
material economical point of view for the symposium on
Chipped Stone Industries of Early Farming Communities
(BIRO 1987). The material published there can be
completed by the followings: Among the old materials of
the Vázsony Basin, the bulk of the lithics from Vöröstó
and Mencshely can be assigned to this period,
furthermore that of Pécsely-Zádorvár and Barnag
(formerly registered as Tótvázsony, MRT II. for
ammendation), all of them selected samples from large
settlements. Since the last survey of 1985, important
new assemblages were found at two localities, 19 both
of them known previously; Kúp and Mencshely. The lithic
material of these authentic excavations both yielding
essential amount of stone tools as well are partly in
press, partly under elaboration; the comprehensive
diagram (Fig.8) contains the data on authentic
materials according to the general aspect of our paper.
The Mencshely material offered especially valuable
evidence for the estimation of the potential role of
the Szentgál exploitation site. In our authenthic
material collected without selection the surprisingly
high ratio of Szentgál flint, the presence and high
amount of decortication flakes made of porose mother-
rock, 'porcelanite', high ratio and large dimensions of
core preparation flakes speaks for a direct contact to
the Flintstone Hill outcrops. Probably we are not
mistaken supposing more or less regular expeditions to
the surce region which has very good natural
connections to the Vázsony Basin along a road existing
today under the mountain Kabhegy. The raw material was
transported in the form of unworked blocks which
reflect high quality pieces, much better than the ones
lying on the surface of the exploitation place, which
are cracked due to surface exposure to alternating
climate. * In the immediate vicinity of the Flintstone
Hill, Szentgál, we can find no LBC settlements. The
next neighbouring settlements to the source lay at some
30 kms far, in the environs of Veszprém and the Balaton
Highlands, respectively. Considering the habitation
pattern of the LBC, we can expect no basic change in
this because the Bakony was completely unfit for LBC
settlements. In spite of the distance and the more or
less intensive use of 20 other, mainly local and
inferior qualitiy raw materials, the region of
Flintstone hill played a dominant role in the raw
material supply of the Balaton Highlands. In case of
Veszprém environs, the radiolarite types characteristic
of Hárskút environs (lying nearer to the sites) play a
more important role, while at the NW parts, Tevel flint
is dominant. The red radiolarite of Szentgál is not
missing from any significant material. Sopot culture In
course of the excavation of the roman villa at
Balácapuszta, the prehistoric material excavated
contained, apart from the above mentioned Late
Zeliezovce material the so far unique settlement of the
Sopot culture in the county. This is marked on the maps
among the Lengyel sites, due to existing genetical
links. On the excavated surface we found both periods
of the culture, unfortunately disturbed by later
buildings. In respect of our paper, special attention
should be paid to the pit complex found in building I.
room 4 of the Roman villa, due to the more than 600
stone artifacts found in it. The material was published
in details (BIRO-PALAGYI-REGENYE 1989). From the point
of raw material composition, it is dominated by yellow,
brownish and greenish radiolarites coloured by
manganese minerals which come from other sources of the
Bakony probably deteriorated by modern manganese
mining. Other varieties of radiolarite are also
present, though in much smaller quantity.
Lengyel culture
63 sites are marked on the map. Their distribution
corresponds 21 to, on the broad lines, previous centres
of occupation on the Marcal flood plain and the Balaton
Highlands, but we can find settlements which are not
conforming to them. An important difference between the
settlement structure of the LBC and the Lengyel culture
that the settlements are not clustered but more evenly
spaced and, more important for our point, Lengyel
people did not avoid the mounainous parts, in the first
place, the environs of raw material sources. These
mountain regions were populated seemingly for the first
time in the history of productive economies and were
not inhabited after the Lengyel culture till the Middle
Ages. Examining the location of the settlements on the
geomorphological map we can see that the sites on the
mountainous parts consequently lie on the border of the
foothills, i.e., steep hillsides trimmed by woodlands
even today. According to the results of Slovakian
research, the beginning of the Lengyel culture
coincided with a period of climatic change when,
following the 'climate optimum' of the Atlantic period,
climate changed for drier. In such circumstances, the
compact brown soil present at higher elevations was
more favourable for wheat production and therefore
preferred by Lengyel people (PAVUK 1982). Some students
of the period suggest an alteration in agricultural
production techniques, that made possible the
cultivation of more compact soil types that were not
loosened by waters, making possible the occupation of
new areas. At the same time, the significance of
woodlands obviously increased as demonstrated by the
growing ratio of wild animals on the sites. According
to BÖKÖNYI (1988), the Late Neolithic was a period of
intensive secondary domestication. Unfortunately, the
sites of the county yielded very few animal bones, but
the fabulous rich 22 Bakony forests, well known for
being very rich in game probably served as a good basis
for the communities settled there. From our special
point of view, the most important feature of the
settlement pattern of the Lengyel culture is that the
settlements seem to surround the Flintstone Hill
exploitation site in a ring with a radius of cca. 10
kms. We can observe, that the Flintstone Hill was
surrounded in Lengyel times by an almost regular circle
of 8 settlements, with the exception of the steep NE
sides only. The members of the settlement chain are
presented below, indicating the distance from the
Szentgál-Flintstone Hill:
Szentgál-Tobán
(48) 7 kms Settlement located by the field surveys of
MRT with pieces of pottery decorated by knots, as well
as a small amount of stone implements from selected
surface collectings (VBM 55.358.1-2, 63.274.1).
Márkó-Csapberek
(30) 9 kms Topographical survey and private collection.
The site is currently on the territory of a military
camp, the VBM dispose of atypical strayfinds from here.
Bánd-Külsöbánd
(13) 8 kms Topographical survey collection. Lengyel
sherds are scattered over large area. The lithic
material stored in the VBM is possibly the result of
selective collectings.
Szentgál-Teleki dülö
(49) 6 kms Material collected by D.LACZKO (VBM
55.550.14, Annual Reports...) 23 and new field surveys
(I. SZABO, REGENYE & BIRO 1988-89). Large settlement
situated on the eastern sides of the Cinca stream. Rich
Late Lengyel pottery and abundant stone material was
collected from here.
Szentgál-Füzikút
(50) 3 kms Collectings of D. LACZKO (VBM 55.550, 55.538
1-4), topographical survey for MRT, field survey and
excavation byREGENYEandBIRO1985-1988,
uninventorized in VBM). Large settlement on steep
hillside. This site was considered to be the most
perspective for excavations in respect of the
exploitation context of the Szentgál sources. 300
square meters have been excavated as yet. Pedological
conditions do not favour our observations: only the
lower part of some pits and crumbled parts of burnt
walls of a house were found. The sherds are yellow,
yellow-grey, red and brown with no traces of painting
and of very poor quality. Plastic ornaments and forms
date the settlement to the late phase of Lengyel
culture. A piece of sherd with scratched ornament found
in one of the pits, it could possibly exist by the end
of Lengyel II already. Most of the bones were absorbed
in the soil, while the lithic material is fairly rich.
The material elaborated for the diagram (Fig. 8)
comprise material coming from the excavations only; a
lot more were collected on the surface. The primary
form of implements here is the microblade and retouched
tools made on microblades, documented by a lot of cores
as well (BIRO 1986). 24
Ajka-Pál major
(1) 7 kms Collectings of S.PALAGYI and Cs. GYURMAN (VBM
81.15 1-3) and recent field survey (GYURMAN-REGENYE-
BIRO 1989, uninventorized material in VBM) Large
settlement on the flanks of a steep hill with Late
Lengyel material. The small number of stone tools
coming from previous collectings is a result of
selective collecting - this is valid for Ajka-
Feketehegy as well. Recent field survey resulted in a
rich assemblage of stone tools and pottery,
corresponding fairly well to other sites of the Late
Lengyel around the Flintstone Hill.
Ajka-Feketehegy
(2) 9 kms This site is somewhat different from the
previous ones, both in the character of the settlement
(relatively small distribution) and its material; few
and atypical sherds, and essential differences in the
lithics as well. The raw material spectra is different,
there are more of local J1 sponginites present here and
among the artifacts, there are some definitely archaic
types present. This can be a consequence of the
different raw material as well, but typical implements
of the Late Lengyel horizon were equally found.
Városlöd-Ujmajor
(55) 3 km New field survey by RAINER and BIRO, 1989.
Large settlement on a steep hillside, pottery and
lithics corresponding to other points of the settlement
chain, rich and varied. The lithic inventory is
dominated by local radiolarites and microblade based
forms. 25 The distances from the source indicated here
show that these sites surround the sources in a small
circle. At the same time it is clear that the sites are
situated quite near to each other (4- 8 kms).
As all of the sites lie on good soil suitable for
cultivation and our excavations at Szentgál-Füzikút
reflected a settlement which is not different from
other localities of the period in its character we
consider that these sites were normal neolithic
villages where the main source of living was the
traditional neolithic economy. At the same time,
intensive connection to the exploitation sites and a
definite specialization on tool production is obvious,
both from the actual place of the sites and the
quantity and composition of the lithic industry as
well. People of the Lengyel Culture - probably a small
group of them - certainly excercised some control over
the sources. By the end of the II. phase of the Lengyel
culture at the earliest, villages surrounded the
Flintstone Hill of Szentgál that were previously not
inhabited. Attachment of the Lengyel culture to flint
mining is documented elsewhere as well like in case of
Vienna-Mauer or the sources of Jurassic Craców Flint
(RUTTKAY 1970, LECH 1972); we are convinced, that the
most intensive exploitation period on the Flintstone
Hill should be placed by this period. To answer the
question why such a spectacular control over the
sources was established just in this period we can rely
on hypotheses only; probably, the significant economic
changes by the end of the Neolithic and the beginning
of the Copper Age brought about the corresponding
changes in economy, labour division and social
structure. 26 Further sites of Lengyel culture in
Veszprém county are unfortunately very difficult to
date exactly, as most of them come from surface finds
where the existence of painting cannot be observed.
Thus a more exact determination of the age was possible
only in case of excavated sites. The early phase of
Lengyel culture is represented by the site Ajka-Csók
utca where details of a pit with red painted pottery
was excavated (REGENYE RF ), as well as Bakonyszücs
containing a cultic find assemblage (MRT IV 54-55). The
fairly abundant lithic material of Ajka-Csók utca is
nearer to, both from the aspect of typology and raw
material spectra to Kúp and Baláca than the Late
Lengyel assemblages surrounding the Flintstone Hill.
There are no sites in Veszprém county which can be
dated unambiguously to Lengyel II, while Lengyel III is
fairly frequent here. Further sites assigned to Lengyel
III comprise Kúp (excavation of S. MITHAY, GLASER-
REGENYE-BIRO in press), Veszprémpinkóc (61), Veszprém-
Felszabadulás útja (58), Veszprém- Nyúlkertek (59)
(RACZKY 1974). In the materials around Veszprém, the
Hárskút varieties are more abundantly represented (as
it can be supposed), while in the Kúp assemblage where
separation of the Lengyel material was possible from
the LBC lithics, apparently the role of local Tevel
flint is seemingly decreasing, compared to the LBC
material and radiolarites (among them, Szentgál type)
have a more important role. The seemingly outstanding
abundance of Lengyel III material in the Lengyel
assemblages of the county is remarkable. It might be
attributed to reasons of research history but we can
equally suppose that intensive flint exploitation
contributed to a 27 certain boom resulting in increase
in population and a relative welfare.
4.1.4 Copper Age and more recent assemblages
Balaton-Lasinja culture
The discovery of the independent existence of the
culture is bound to Veszprém County (KALICZ 1969). We
know about the existence of 40 sites, most of them by
the Marcal and its tributaries. Settlements considered
more significant are clustered here as well
(Adorjánháza (1), Gógánfa (18), Kamond (21), Rigács
(30). On the Balaton Highlands, only scattered finds
are known. In our opinion this is not necessarily
indicating that the Balaton-Lasinja people settled in a
complementary way to the Lengyel people, much rather we
suspect insufficiency of research. On the basis of the
material at our disposal, we could not always separate
the s.s. Balaton and the Furchenstich material. Most
probably, thematerial ofBalatonfüzfö (6),
Balatonkenese- Akarattya (7), Berhida (8) and Veszprém-
Nyúlkertek (37) belongs to the latter. It is striking
that these sites are clustered, opposed to the Balaton
sites, at the Western parts of the Balaton Highland.
Since the Middle Copper Age, we dispose of more scanty
information on the lithic materials in general. This is
especially true for the Balaton-Lasinja material where
settlements with lithic material overlay former
villages of the LBC, thus the material cannot be
unambiguously attributed to this horizon. 28 More
recent excavations were performed on one site only,
i.e., Balatonakarattya-Debreceni lejáró (REGENYE RF
,(7), material in VBM under inv. nr.87.135.1-138.9)
This rescue excavation affected a small surface only,
but the evaluation of the material here is rendered
more difficult by the fact that Early Bronze Age
material is mixed with that of the probably smaller
Balaton settlements.
Baden culture
93 sites of the culture are known from the county. By
the Late Copper Age, the former territory of the LBC is
again populated, from the point of distributon and
settlement density as well. The reason for the
spreading of the Baden people can be attributed to,
according to Pavuk (1982), climatic changes. We can add
that the similarity of settlement patterns is rooted,
partly, in the fact that both periods yielded many
small settlements. Settlements of the Boleráz group are
marked separately on the map, after TORMA 1969 and MRT
I-IV. 41 sites of the group are known from the county,
about half of the total number of Baden culture. This
fact is surprising because we can postulate a much
shorter period for the existence of the Boleráz phase
than the rest of the Baden culture. The areal
distribution of Boleráz sites agree, on the broad
lines, with those of the subsequent period, i.e., there
is no difference between the areas inhabited.
Excavation conducted on major surface was not performed
here; in spite of the richness of the county in sites,
Baden material was excavated here only as a by-product
of roman excavations at Felsöörs ((30), (VBM. 82.7.1-
240)).
29 Early Bronze Age Sites of this period (69) are
demonstrated on the same map irrespective of cultural
assignment. Sites which can be more exactly determined
on the basis of pottery are marked (Somogyvár, Zók and
Kisapostag cultures), but most of the surface collected
material allowed us not more than register the presence
of EBA in general. Sites of the Somogyvár culture
comprise, without exception, strayfind vessels. In the
vicinity of the vessel published by BONA 1975 from Ajka
(1), sherds of Makó type were found. Apart from the
small vessel from Veszprém-Vár, a bowl decorated with
interior ornament was found (excavation of DAX and
RAINER, VBM uninventorized). We have no accurate data
on the material of sites assigned to Zók culture, they
are mainly strayfinds on the settlements of other
cultures. Major sites include Balatonkenese-Sirály Ktsz
(10), Balatonkenese-Akarattya (11) and, possibly,
Nagyvázsony- Baráti dülö (37). At the former two sites,
rescue excavations were performed, at site (10), a pit
of the Zók culture was found in 1987 (VBM
uninventorized) unfortunately without stone tools,
while the other excavation yielded the above mentioned
mixed Copper Age- Early Bronze Age material.
Practically we have no information what sort of
material represents the period between the end of the
Baden culture and the beginnings of the Kisapostag
culture in the county. Investigations concerning the
southern parts of Transdanubia cleared up this period
as inhabited between Vucedol C and Early Kisapostag by
the Somogyvár-Vinkovci culture (ECSEDY 1978, 1981, 30
BANDI 1981). Considering the fact that Somogyvár and
Zók finds are equally present in Veszprém county it
seems probable that the material culture of the period
immediately preceding the Kisapostag culture probably
agreed with that of the southern parts of Transdanubia.
Lacking concrete excavations, however, we cannot judge
the extent of similarity. The end of the Early Bronze
Age is undoubtedly represented by the Kisapostag
culture in our county, comprising both of its phases
(TORMA 1972). In some cases, the Kisapostag assemblage
was found over former Early Bronze Age settlements.
There is no significant difference within the
settlement patterns with the exception that on the
northern side of the county, by the river Marcal, we
find settlements of the Kisapostag culture only.
Culture of Incrusted Ware 66 sites are known from this
period, almost as much as from the whole Early Bronze
Age. With a few exceptions, the sites are situated to
the east of the the line Veszprém-Tihany, lying in a
closed block along the floodplain of the stream Séd. As
BANDI demonstrated, here we have to think of a confined
tribal territory marked by him as N/C (BANDI 1972). The
scanty number of sites on the northern parts belong to
N/A, while the coastal sites along the NW shores of
lake Balaton were assigned to group N/B. It is striking
that we can find no sites along the Marcal though the
previous Kisapostag culture had significant traces
there. Increasing the number of sites we can find
fairly large amount of cemeteries (20 cemeteries or
graves), while formerly all the sites represented
settlements. 31 In respect of the beginning of the
culture, the opinion of students is different. BANDI,
disclaiming the independent existence of the Kisapostag
culture, called the late phase of the material
described by TORMA as Kisapostag, the Early Incrusted
Ware (BANDI 1972, TORMA 1972). On our map we accepted
the concept of TORMA who separated, as a transitional
phase, the 3rd period of the Kisapostag culture (TORMA
1978). These are partly mentioned by M. CSANYI (1978)
as Early Incrusted Ware sites, as obvious antecedents
of the culture. BANDI (1967) considered this region as
one of the possible centres of formation of the
Incrusted Ware Culture. Periodization of the Incrusted
Ware material is not satisfactory as yet: the
periodization of BONA founded on the cemetery of
Királyszentistván (BONA 1975) cannot be applied to the
material of the site Veszprém-Vár (CSANYI 1978).
Chipped stone tools can be reckoned as very rare
instances since the Copper Age, in spite of the fact
that probably they used to play an important role still
as everyday working implements. The lack of stone tools
can be attributed to, in our opinion, reasons of
research history and collecting techniques. With a
special regard to the poor state of research concerning
post-neolithic stone artifacts we are presenting here
all (unfortunately, very few) characteristic forms
coming unambiguously of Copper Age- Bronze Age
assemblages (Fig. 11). 32 4.2. Distribution of
Transdanubian Radiolarites in Hungary in the light of
present data In contrary to the lithic assemblages of
Veszprém countywhere available lithics were
systematically examined, the basis of our data for
wider distribution could not aim at a complete survey
of all available material. The data at our disposal are
more or less random in time and space and reflect only
the present state of research. Apart from this random
character of the sample, certain tematical biass is
also distorting the picture, thus linearband pottery
culture and late neolithic assemblages were more in the
focus of our interest. Spatial authenticity of these
studies is mainly based on the examination of
topographical materials and the survey of some county
museums: a systematical survey of Palaeolithic and very
young lithic assemblages, however, can essentially
modify the picture. In contrary to the material
examined from Veszprém county, most of the material
presented here come from modern, authentic excavations
with adequatelydated assemblageswhere the
archaeologist aimed at a complete collection of lithics
as well. Let us express our thanks for all the
materials we could use for this survey. Lacking an up-
to-date revision, in case of most of the Palaeolithic
assemblages we had to be content with a mere
registration of the presence of radiolarites (BIRO 1988
Fig.7). From some sites, we had the possibility to
study the raw material distribution according to our
categories on a major sample of flakes (BIRO in
CS.BALOG 1985, BIRO in DOBOSI et al. 1989). 33 The
lithic assemblages surveyed are analysed here only in
respect of Transdanubian radiolarites, to study the
distribution, supply zone, possible interaction of
these rocks. Special attention was paid to cases when
the Transdanubian radiolarite surpassed major natural
boundaries (in the first place, the Danube) or cultural
borders establishedon thebasis of other
archaeological arguments, mainly pottery typology.
Previous papers already dealt with the distribution of
radiolarites on spot-maps or in percentages of the
broad categories in case of large assemblages (BIRO
1986, BIRO 1988 Fig.3) In this study, we present the
relevant data according to the fine categories used for
the Veszprém material (Fig. 10), adapting ourselves to
the broad chronological scheme used there as well. We
have taken into consideration all assemblages where
Transdanubian radiolarites occurred and we dispose of
more or less dateable evidence on the age of the
assemblage. Large assemblages (with more than 50 items)
were considered, to clarify the boundaries of
radiolarite distribution, even if they contain no
radiolarite, for constructing the isoscale distribution
map (Fig 12).
4.2.1. From the Palaeolithic till the Early Neolithic
As it was previously mentioned, we have no authentic
material dated to this period from Veszprém county.
This broad period of time is, in general, not
elaborated according to our system. The presence of
Transdanubian radiolarites can be observed on most
sites lying to the West of the Danube: in case of
Vértesszöllös and Tata, the presence of available local
radiolarite was possibly one of the important factors
attracting settlement of 34 prehistoric people there.
On the intensively investigated sites of the Bükk and
the Tokaj region, there is no known occurrence of
Transdanubian radiolarites; the radiolarites described
from these sites mostly come from Slovakia (Hornad
pebbles) and the inferior quality Bükk radiolarites.
The only site where I could find Transdanubian
radiolarite to the East of the present line of the
Danube is Madaras, dominated by Mecsek radiolarite and
containing up to 5 % of Transdanubian Middle Jurassic
radiolarite as well. (DOBOSI et al. 1989). In our
epipalaeolithic and mesolithic materials, the presence
of Transdanubian radiolarites could be observed at
Koroncó and Szekszárd (material in the HNM), however,
systematical studies are missing. From the territory of
the Körös culture we know relatively few materials in
general (BACSKAY 1976, BACSKAY-SIMAN 1987, RACZKY
1983), among which the material of Méhtelek is
outstanding in respect of quantity (CHAPMAN 1987).
Though we made no detailed investigation on the
material, as far as we know the site (lying very far
from the Bakony sources) contained no Transdanubian
radiolarites. Also we found no radiolarite in the
assemblage of Kötelek-Huszársarok (RACZKY 1983),
composed entirely of obsidian. Lacking positive and
certain data on the occurrence of Transdanubian
radiolarite on the Alföld, it may be important to
mention that in the rich mixed material of Dévaványa
stored in Oxford I could see quite an essential
quantity of the material in the custody of A. SHERRATT
(SHERRATT 1986). In the Starcevo material of this
period we dispose of no lithic assemblages from
Hungary; in the material of Yugoslavian sites, however,
KACZANOWSKA(KACZANOWSKA-KOZLOWSKI1986,1987)
described red 35 radiolarites which may correspond to
our material: its occurrence in the Earliest phase of
the LBC near the Yugoslavian sites makes it highly
probable.
4.2.2. LBC and its neighbours
The first period when we can witness an intensive
habitation in Veszprém county, in the relative vicinity
of the radiolarite sources, is the period of the LBC
(Map 2.) and within this horizon, the Earliest LBC
separated in Hungary by KALICZ (1980). The excavations
of the past few years brought about important results
from the point of this period (SCHREIBER RF 1988) from
the siteBudapest-Aranyhegy. Among the older
assemblages, the excavations of E. JEREM yielded a
small, but very important assemblage from our point of
view (KALICZ 1980, BIRO 1987). On the site Szentlörinc,
lying in the vicinity of the Mecsek radiolarite
sources, about half of the assemblage comprises
Szentgál flint! In connection with Szentlörinc, we also
have to mention the presence of obsidian here, which is
present on other sites of the period in Transdanubia as
well (Budapest- Aranyhegy).We can meet no obsidians at
such a distance from the source till the Lengyel
culture. Middle Jurassic Transdanubian radiolarites can
be found on all of the significant lithic assemblages
dated to LBC and Zeliezovce cultures, in the first
place, colour varieties typical of the Bakony Mts. The
corresponding chronological horizon to the East of the
Danube comprise some sites which belong culturally to
these complexes (Transdanubian Linearband Pottery
Culture, Zeliezovce Culture). They contain radiolarite
as a characteristic, sometimes dominant 36 raw
material. In the vicinity of the North Hungarian Mid
Mountains, yielding various competitive raw materials,
the ratio of Transdanubian radiolarites is essentially
smaller while they are dominant in assemblages of the
western part of the central region of the Great
Hungarian Plain (Kiskunság). Here the difference
between Middle Neolithic assemblages and the material
of Kunadacs and Kunpeszér with uncertain dating
(epipaleolithic? early bronze age?) is really striking
(Fig. 10). Within the materials of the Middle
Neolithic, the stone assemblages of the AVK (Alföld
Linearband Pottery Culture) occassionally contain some
Transdanubian radiolarite, sometimes fairly far from
the source region (e.g., Gerla-Kászmán). Seemingly, the
regular raw material supply of these regions were based
on raw materials of the Northern Mid-Mountains mainly.
Some isolated finds, however, found their way quite a
long distance from the sources, even outsite the
present borders of Hungary (Bylany, *). On sites
associated with the Tiszadob and Bükk cultures, no
Transdanubian radiolarites were found so far; this can
be supported, apart from the considerable distance, the
abundance of good quality local materials. 4.2.3.
Lengyel culture and its neighbours All of our efforts
to correlate the Transdanubian material with other
parts of Hungary are seemingly inappropriate because
the pace of evolution is different for the two basic
regions. This is most keenly true for the Late
Neolithic, what we must extend - due to the situation
in Veszprém county - towards the Early Copper Age. Also
we must consider the earlier part of the Late Neolithic
(Sopot) here. Already from the Sopot culture and the 37
earliest Lengyel (Becsehely, Sé) we have significant
amount of lithics with a very important role of
Transdanubian radiolarites. Both of these sites lie at
the national borders, so we must suppose that the
supply zone extended far over the territory of present
Hungary. Also we must consider possible interacting
sources in W, SW directions that we cannot exclude as
yet. In the classical (I) phase of the Lengyel culture
most of our evidences came from localities with
abundant competitive material (Mecsek Mts and Northern
Mid-Mountains). In spite of that, on all the territory
of the Lengyel culture, at least the presence of
radiolarites can be demonstrated. The Transdanubian
radiolarite pieces of the Tolna-Baranya sites are of
fairly high degree of processing; we can interprete
them as inter-group exchange within the broader
cultural unit of the Lengyel culture. From this point
of view, the relatively small assemblage of Szakály is
seemingly very important, dominated by in almost equal
ratio Mecsek and Bakony radiolarites, respectively.
Large and rich sites like Aszód and Csabdi functioned,
according to the evidence of lithic material, as trade
centers - probably the same can be supposed about
Svodin, the lithic assemblage of which shows many
resemblances to the latter sites. Further sites of the
Lengyel cultureoutside Hungary also contain
Transdanubian radiolarites, like Tesetice-Kyjovice
(PRYCHISTAL) and Sered-Macanskie Vrchy (BARTA). This is
a verypowerful argument for contacts with
Transdanubia, keeping an eye on the fact that the
Slovakian radiolarite, Moravian hornstones and polish
raw materials meant very strong competitive solutions
for raw material supply in Central and Western Slovakia
and Moravia. 38 In case of Late Neolithic assemblages
outside the Lengyel territory (in the first place,
Szakálhát and Tisza sites), radiolarites have a
spectacular advance as far as the Tisza region and even
further (Szolnok-Tüzköves, Szegvár-Tüzköves, Öcsöd,
Battonya etc.) The intrusion of the radiolarite to
regions formerly dominated by limnoquartzite and
obsidian only probably reflects the situation after the
termination of the Bükk culture. Another phenomenon
fitting in this picture is the advance of Lengyel
people towards the northeast, which is apparent from
the results of latest research (VIZDAL 1984, KALICZ
1989). This spectacular advance of Transdanubian
(mainly, Bakony) radiolarites took place, as far as we
can see, contemporary with the first phase of the
Lengyel culture. Our data on the Szentgál outcrops,
however, speak for a more intensive use of the sources
by the III. phase of the Lengyel culture, which is
generally paralellized with Early Copper Age. The
material surveyed from this period on the great
Hungarian plain reflects, however, a north-eastern
influence rather than Transdanubian connections. This
contradiction is awaiting for further research.
4.2.4. Copper Age and more recent materials
Unfortunately, our knowledge on more recent lithic
materials is fairly deficient as yet. On Transdanubian
sites we can observe that the dominant role of
Transdanubian radiolarites is still preserved. In this
analysis, assemblages like Nagykanizsa and Zalavár,
where large surface authentic excavations were
performed, are especially valuable for us. To the east
of the Danube, North-Eastern and Northern materials are
dominating. The difference between assemblages on both
side of the Danube is 39 adequately demonstrated by the
Baden assemblages of Budapest as well. The occurrence
of radiolarite in sporadic late assemblages like Hahót
(KVASSAY J.) and Sopron-Krautacker (JEREM E.) indicates
that the use of Transdanubian radiolarites did not end
with the arbitrary limits of our survey.
4.3. Distribution of the Transdanubian radiolarite - an
isoscale representation (Fig. 12)
On the basis of the percentage data concerning the role
of Transdanubian radiolarites within the chipped stone
assemblages, an estimation of probable percentages was
made in the form of an isoscale map, produced by the
statistical method published and used by A. ZIMMERMANN
(1989). This map contains expectable percentages at a
given point of Hungary. For the grid system serving as
a basis for this work, we must thank P. BIRO who
developed the software for the Ministry of Environment
Protection. For the isoscale map we made use of all
percentages calculated. We lumped together all
chronological horizons and all raw material type
varieties within the Transdanubian radiolarites, same
as presented on Figs. 8-9, as well as material of large
assemblages yielding no Transdanubian radiolarites. It
is visible on the map that the absolute dominance of
Middle Jurassic radiolarites agrees well with the area
and vicinity of the sources. The Northern part of
Transdanubia is seemingly over the isoterm 50 %. The
valley of the Danube is visible on the diagram as a
natural boundary, though distribution surpassed the
line of the Danube, mainly at the height of
Dunaföldvár-Fajsz and has an extension towards the
Middle and Lower course of the river 40 Tisza.
Competitive raw material source regions can be very
well identified as well, i.e., the Mecsek and the North
Hungarian Mid/Mountains stand out as negative
anomalies.
5. Conclusions
In our paper we tried to present the geological-
petrological character of Transdanubian radiolarites,
its macroscopically separable types and their
distribution on archaeological sites in their tight and
wider environment. We took into consideration, apart
from the actual percentages, technological-typological
data and the ratio of different types within the
radiolarites. The data obtained allow us various
conclusions on the local, regional and long distance
level.
5.1. Local level
Our concrete examinations were undertaken, in the first
place, on the immediate surroundings of the outcrop,
within a day's walk from the site. We are convinced
that at least in the Neolithic, inhabitants of the
region had a primary and, possibly, exclusive access to
the sources for the exploitation of raw material
deposits on their territory. The concentration of
settlements in the vicinity of the source in the Late
Neolithic is obviously in some contact with this,
whether it means defence, protection, immediate access
or anything. The connection of dense inhabitation
around the source and stone exploitation and processing
is further indicated by the numerous lithic assemblages
indicating intensive production of stone tools. This
period is coinciding with - though certainly with some
shift - the most extensive use and possibly the largest
extent of radiolarite distribution in the Carpathian
Basin. 41
5.2. Regional level
Systematical collection of data was performed on the
territory of Veszprém county, the state of research on
this area influencing essentially our results due to
both its positive and negative feautures (i.e.,
intensive and systematical field surveys vs. large
surface excavations and some 'blank spots' in research
history). Data outside the boundaries of the country
are random and casual, even for Transdanubia. According
to our present data, radiolarite of the Transdanubian
Mid-Mountains supplied, basically, most of the
Transdanubian regions with chipped stone raw material.
It can be considered dominant on the Northern part of
Transdanubia. On the sites of the Bakony (and Veszprém
county, in general), essential competitive materials
are local Lower Jurassic spongiolite and Upper
Cretaceous Tevel flint, the solitary outcrop of which
is at the NW part of the county. These local raw
materials can comprise quite an essential part of the
stone tool kit (e.g., Kúp or Vöröstó). The former raw
material does not occur outside the county (at least,
according to our present data), but Tevel flint took
part at a given period in long distance raw material
supply (LBC-Early Lengyel assemblages). Long distance
import materials (obsidian, Northern flint varieties
and limnoquartzite) are very rare on the territory of
Veszprém county. In the raw material supply of the
Kisalföld and the regions lying to the SW of lake
Balaton, radiolarites of the Transdanubian Mid-
Mountains are present in a dominant quantity. Further
from the raw material sources we can observe, first,
sporadical occurrences of different raw materials (on
Hungarian territory, mainly that of the North Hungarian
Mid-Mountain Range and the 42 Mecsek which have also at
least regional significance, which are getting more and
more significant around the source regions. Between the
supply zones dominated by certain raw materials we can
observe zones of interaction like the valley of the
Danube and the Somogy-Tolna hills. Towards the west and
the southwest, the borders of the radiolarite supply
zone surpasses the present political boundary of
Hungary. At the same time we must not forget about the
Vienna-Mauer source and exploitation site the
separation of which is not solved as yet and the so far
unknown Yugoslavian territories can yield surprising
things. On the raw material type and technological type
distribution of the sites we can mention that among the
colour varieties, Szentgál type and related colour
varieties were selected as well as yellow Urkút-Eplény
type, with a somewhat complementary character. Less
pretty and probably mechanically inferior varieties are
seldom occurring far from the source. The same tendency
can be observed concerning the state of processing as
well: this trend is most spectacular at the Lengyel
assemblages of the Mecsek Mts., where Transdanubian
radiolarite was recovered mainly in the form of blades
and retouched tools. At the same time, to some sites of
the Tisza region the raw material was obviously
transported in the form of unprocessed blocks, nodules
as reflected by decortication flakes and a fairly great
number of flakes and waste, even raw material blocks.
The boundaries of the region supplied basically with
radiolarite are, of course, not permanent. This is
especially valid for regions where no local sources of
raw material is available. Supply zone does not
necessarily interact with the border of the
technocomplex separated on typological grounds or other
elements 43 of the subsistence system, though in some
periods (Transdanubian LBC) we can observe considerable
interaction. Isoscale distribution maps on all periods
would reflect these changes better; the data at our
disposal, however, favoured a more comprehensive
representation (Fig 12.).
5.3. Long distance level
Distribution of long distance raw materials is the
traditional field of provenance studies. Under 'long
distance raw materials' we can consider certain popular
raw material varieties occurring fairly far from the
original source, intruding the supply zone of other raw
materials, sometimes surpassing several cultural and
geographicalboundaries.Typically (thoughnot
necessarily) they are occurring in small quantities,
and they can be considered as high prestige goods. They
are undoubtedly valuable indicators of regional
contacts, similar to other import finds like marine
shells or characteristic import pottery. On the other
hand, their historical value, in our opinion, can be
often questioned, partly, because the danger of
interaction with material of other sources is higher at
a great distance from the source and, partly, because
the mechanism of spreading for this pieces is probably
different from a direct transport, most likely,
including several steps and the contribution of several
middlemen. Transdaubian radiolarites, especially the
most favoured colour varieties occur fairly often far
from the source region. The radius of maximal
distributon can be estimated, according to our present
data, some 400 kms.
Figure captions
Fig. 1
Distribution of Palaeolithic sites in Veszprém county
List of sites on the map (with MRT number or reference
indicated): 1. Lovas-Murvabánya (2.48.2.), 2. Városlöd-
Homokbánya (2.48.2.), 3. Veszprém-Téglagyár (2.51.73.),
4. Bakonybél-Pörgölhegy cave (Roska 1955), 5. Tihany-
Gödrösök (RF Dobosi)
Fig. 1a
Key of symbols for Figs. 1-7 1. Block mountain, 2.
Denudational remnant, 3. Flood plains, 4. Peat, organic
mud, 5. Border of alluvial fan with terraces and the
hillside slopes, 6. Middle Jurassic formations
containing radiolarite 7. Szentgál - Flintstone Hill,
8. Border of the county, 9. Typical altitude values in
meters (a.s.l.), 10. Archaeological site, 11.
Archaeological site with chipped stones tools (1-10
pieces), 12. Archaeological site with chipped stones
tools (11-50 pieces), 13. Archaeological site with
chipped stones tools (>50 pieces)
Fig. 2
Distribution of LBC sites in Veszprém county List of
sites on the map (with MRT number or reference
indicated):
Fig. 3
Distribution of Sopot and Lengyel sites in Veszprém
county List of sites on the map (with MRT number or
reference indicated):
Fig. 4
Distribution of Balaton-Lasinja sites in Veszprém
county List of sites on the map (with MRT number or
reference indicated): 1
Fig. 5
Distribution of Baden sites in Veszprém county *
Boleráz sites, * Baden sites after the Boleráz phase, *
sites of both periods List of sites on the map (with
MRT number or reference indicated):
Fig. 6
Distribution of Early Bronze Age sites in Veszprém
county * Kisapostag culture * Somogyvár-Vinkovci
culture List of sites on the map (with MRT number or
reference indicated):
Fig. 7
Distribution of Incrusted Ware Pottery sites in
Veszprém county List of sites on the map (with MRT
number or reference indicated):
Fig. 8
Raw material distribution of prehistoric sites in
Veszprém countyin respectof Transdanubian
radiolarites Column I: chronological scheme 1.
Transdanubian LBC, 2. Lengyel culture, 3. Balaton-
Lasinja culture, 4. Baden culture, 5. Early Bronze Age,
6. Incrusted Ware culture, 7. More recent assemblages
General key to the bars: short bar: nr. of lithics 50 Column II: percentage of Transdanubian
radiolarite 3 within the chipped stone assemblage
Column III: percentage of Transdanubian radiolarite
types (colour variants) within the Transdanubian
radiolarites of the assemblage Column IV: technological
types within the Transdanubian radiolarites of the
assemblage For a detailed key of symbols on Columns
III-IV, see Fig. 8a
Fig. 10
Copper Age and More recent chipped stone tools 1.
Kamond (Balaton Culture), endscraper on blade; 2.
Malomsok- Cseresznyés (Baden Culture), bifacial
transversal scraping knife; 3-5. Marcaltö-Gerence halom
(Baden Culture) microblade and truncated blades; 6-7.
Felsöörs-Föszöllök (Baden Culture) bifacial scraping
knife and borer on chip; 8-11. Balatonakarattya-Alagut
(Baden, EBA, MBA), endscraper on chip, truncated blade,
bifacial triangular projectile point, borer on blade;
12-13. Balatonkenese-Akarattya (Balaton-EBA)
asymmetrical endscraper with finely retouched edge,
double truncated blade; 14-17. Királyszentistván
(Baden-MBA-LBA) bladecore, segment-formcore
rejuvenation flake, retouched blade, endscraper on
small flake
Fig. 11
An isoscale model on the distribution of Transdanubian
radiolarites Key of symbols: 1. Border of Hungary, 2.
Ratio of transdanubian radiolarite in the assemblages -
computer generated isoscale lines by 5 % each 3.
Distribution of transdanubian radiolarite; over 80 %
(dominant), over 55 % (typical) over 30 % (frequent);
over 5 % (present) under 5 % (rare). Percentages are
indicated by numbers. .
Tartalom *
Krónika *
Cikkek *
Képek